Department of Relief and Rehabilitation

1. INTRODUCTION

A hazard becomes a disaster only when it affects human settlements and causes loss of life and damage to property. In order to reduce the impact of such events through mitigation efforts, it is necessary to understand how such hazards become disasters. The extent of vulnerability of the area, people and property to a hazard or the probability of its occurrence defines the extent of risk. Vulnerability analysis and risk assessment therefore are essential forerunners for evolving appropriate preventive measures and mitigation strategies. The document on “Risk Assessment and Vulnerability Analysis for the State of Maharashtra” assumes significance in this context, and needs further refinement and updating in order to monitor the effectiveness of preparedness and mitigation efforts.

The analysis shows that various locations in the state of Maharashtra are vulnerable to different disasters in varied degrees. Preparedness and mitigation plans, therefore, will have to be evolved locally to reduce the impact of the disasters. While evolving such area specific preparedness and mitigation plans, types of vulnerabilities will essentially define the levels of preparedness and mitigation strategies. These strategies will have to be concentrated more towards the social and economically backward communities, as against the vulnerability of the overall system.

The social and economic backwardness is a direct result of marginalisation, non-access to goods and services, illiteracy and population growth. In some cases, particularly in urban areas, with a high population concentration of the poor, preventive service measures cannot reach everybody, resulting in large sections of people being left to face the impact of the hazards with their own means. Preparedness and mitigation strategies will have to be oriented, in such a situation, to higher degrees of community involvement and participation.

In rural areas, characterised by inadequate infrastructure and poverty groups, all mitigation efforts will have to be backed up by a strong and committed programme of social development for the communities. There ample evidence and extensive literature describing the relationship between disasters and development. Constant re-examination, therefore, of development policies and programmes, leading to equity and social justice, will be a pre-requisite to ensure the success of mitigation efforts that are being proposed.

The United Nations has declared the 1990s to be the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR). Specifically, it focuses primary attention on planning and preparedness for hazards rather than waiting passively for them to strike. The belief is that post-disaster relief, while humanitarian in its motivation and certainly necessary, is relatively ineffective as compared with various actions that could be taken before disaster strikes. In any case, preparedness is the key to effective action after the event. The roles of training, education, and information dissemination has therefore been given a high priority.

In essence, the decade's activities seek to shift the emphasis from post-disaster relief to pre-disaster risk reduction. The key tasks in risk reduction are:

• avoiding habitation in hazardous areas;

• developing structures resistant to the onslaughts of hazards

• developing the ability to rapidly evacuate hazardous areas or to shift residents to hazard-resistant structures

• reducing or eliminating natural hazards through technological intervention (e.g., dams, plantings, beach groins) and

• establishing, through preparedness, the means to quickly recover from disasters-with minimal additional suffering and loss of life.

While devising the mitigation strategy it is necessary to differentiate between disaster preparedness and disaster mitigation.

Preparedness and focuses on plans to respond to a disaster threat or occurrence. It takes into account an estimation of emergency needs and identifies the resources to meet these needs. It also involves preparation of well-designed plans to structure the entire post-disaster response, and familiarising the stakeholders, particularly the communities through training and simulation exercises. Preparedness has to be supported by the necessary legislation. means a readiness to cope with disasters or similar emergencies which cannot be avoided.

The first objective of preparedness is to reduce the disaster impact through appropriate actions and improve the capacity of those who are likely to be affected most (that is, the marginalised and the poor), to get the maximum benefit out of relief. The second is to ensure that ongoing development continues to improve the capacities and the capabilities of the system to strengthen preparedness efforts at community level. Finally, it guides reconstruction so as to ensure reduction in vulnerability.

The best examples of preparedness activities are the development of local warning and community evacuation plans through community education, evolving local response structures such as Community Emergency Response Teams (CERT) and administrative preparedness by way of stockpiling of supplies; developing emergency plans for rescue and relief.

Since disasters are economic and social processes, preparedness and mitigation must emphasise the socioeconomic rather than just the physical aspects. If disasters demonstrate the vulnerability of the social system, then any policy for disaster management must include the potential reduction of such vulnerability.

Pre-disaster planning consists of activities such as disaster mitigation and disaster preparedness. Disaster mitigation focuses on the hazard that causes the disaster and tries to eliminate or drastically reduce its direct effects. The best example of mitigation is the construction of dams or leevies to prevent floods or coordination of release of water from various irrigation dams to avoid flooding in the downstream areas. Other examples include strengthening buildings to make them cyclone or earthquake resistant, planting of crops that are less affected by disasters, changing crop cycles, controlling land-use patterns to restrict development in high-risk areas and diversification of economic activities to act as insurance to offset losses in different sectors.

Structural measures such as the construction of protective works or alterations designed to diminish the vulnerability of the elements at risk, and non-structural measures, such as regulating land use and building codes, incorporating preventive aspects into development planning, and equipping line departments for damage reduction, can all reduce the impact of a disaster on a region or a population. Everything that is done to reduce or prevent the damages that a disaster may cause is called “mitigation of risks.”

Such mitigation measures can be integrated with normal development activities and inter-departmental coordination. Mitigation is not, in fact, a cost. In the long run it pays for itself. And it does so in lives saved and in real money.

2. MITIGATION STRATEGY : PARTNERSHIPS FOR BUILDING SAFER COMMUNITIES

Mitigation distinguishes actions that have a long-term impact from those that are more closely associated with preparedness for, immediate response to, and short-term recovery from a specific disaster, recognizing that the boundaries are not absolute. Mitigation efforts must not only be a priority for the repair, reconstruction, and rehabilitation of developed areas, but must become a prerequisite for growth in areas that have not been developed.

A complicating factor is that there will always be residual losses from extreme events above and beyond those for which mitigation is cost-effective. It may not be economical to protect buildings and infrastructure other than critical facilities from these more extreme events since the increased cost of construction can far exceed the damage prevented.

• Risk reduction measures ensure long-term economic success for the community as a whole rather than short-term benefits for special interests.

• Mitigation supports the building (or rebuilding) of communities as models of sustainable development, so that they are likely to recover more quickly from the economic impacts of disasters and the people are disaster survivors, not disaster victims.

• Risk reduction measures for one disaster must be compatible with risk reduction measures for other disasters.

• Risk reduction measures must be evaluated to achieve the best mix for a given location.

• All mitigation is local.

• Disaster costs and the impacts of hazards can be reduced by emphasising pro-active mitigation before emergency response, that is both pre-disaster and post-disaster mitigation.

• Hazard identification and risk assessment are the cornerstones of mitigation.

• Building new Centre-State-local partnerships and public-private partnerships are the most effective means of implementing measures to reduce the impacts of hazards.

• Those who knowingly choose to assume greater risk must accept responsibility for that choice.

• Risk reduction measures for hazards must be compatible with the protection of natural and cultural resources.

This is an appropriate time to launch a state level effort because

• The economic and social costs of recent large-scale disasters like Latur earthquake are still fresh in our minds.

• Significant technical know-how is finding its way into practical application.

• Mitigation is being recognized as an integral component of sustainable development.

• There is growing acceptance of the need to develop a multi-disaster approach to mitigation.

• There is an ongoing UNDP sponsored programme to define the roles of Central government and State governments for reducing the impacts of disasters.

• To substantially increase public awareness of disaster risk so that the public demands safer communities in which to live and work; and

• To significantly reduce the risks of loss of life, injuries, economic costs, and destruction of natural and cultural resources that result from disasters

The underlying assumption of mitigation is that in the long-term analysis, the expenditure on mitigation measures will prove to be cost-effective in terms of the savings generated via reduced losses and reduced deaths. The hazard assessment and the vulnerability analysis can, to an extent, project the probable future losses. While the specific time and location of future losses cannot be specified, general trends, and areas of elevated risk can be identified. Specific mitigative actions can be taken to prevent losses in these areas. However, such actions do have a cost built into them, in terms of relocation or structural enhancements or protection. This cost, however, will be offset by the expected reduction in loss during a disaster. The difference between the cost of mitigation and the cost of expected loss, is a tangible financial benefit.

While it is difficult to quantify many intangible assets like loss of life or disruption in social structure, studies done in many countries have clearly demonstrated the benefits of mitigation as compared to the expenditure incurred on mitigation. These then, are the various non-financial benefits of mitigation. A cost benefit analysis of any proposed mitigation measure is therefore, essential to analyse the extent of loss-reduction. The effectiveness and efficiency of mitigation investments is directly influenced by scientific development in hazard identification and loss reduction measures. For this reason, scientific and engineering research provide the foundation for improved mitigation investment returns.

Historical data on disasters clearly underscores the fact, that disasters have, by and large, a definite frequency to their occurrence. While in Maharashtra earthquakes may occur once in fifteen years, floods, on the other hand, may occur once every three-four years. With the advancement in science and increased understanding of the natural phenomena, it is possible to apply this knowledge in combination with the traditional or local modes of mitigation, to chalk out a comprehensive mitigation strategy.

A mitigation strategy however, cannot be successful unless it has the backing and support of all concerned – the administrative machinery, the research institutions, the non-officials and the community. So, it also becomes imperative to have built-in institutional arrangements and/or legislative backing to oversee the mitigation strategy over a period of time.

• Risk Assessment and Vulnerability Analysis
• Applied Research and Technology Transfer
• Public Awareness and Training
• Institutional Mechanisms
• Incentives and Resources for Mitigation
• Land Use Planning and Regulations

3.1 Risk Assessment and Vulnerability Analysis

Before embarking on any specific mitigation measure, it is essential to have a proper understanding of the risks and vulnerability of the community. This basically means carrying out a risk assessment and vulnerability analysis. Such an activity will have to carried out in each district, resulting in identification of hot-spot areas or areas of prime concern. While such assessments would be administrative exercises, it is essential that the local community is also involved in such exercises as this gives them a better understanding of their risks and vulnerabilities.

A comprehensive vulnerability analysis should be undertaken in all hazard prone areas, taking into account past disaster events, the socio-economic conditions of the population living in the area, the infrastructure and other structural facilities for cyclones, floods, storm surges, geological hazards etc. Risk assessment should be undertaken for all hazards, and should include the following:

(a) areas of influence (b) frequency (c) intensity (d) impact and (e) time to return to normalcy

Hazard mapping can then be undertaken to delineate causative source areas and areas exposed to hazards, as well as the potential risk levels for different hazards. There is also a great need for the production of geologic "thematic maps". Hazard maps can therefore be deterministic or probabilistic.

Geographical Information Systems (GIS) can also play a crucial role in the gathering and analysis of information needed for disaster management. The GIS can give higher quality results than can be obtained manually, regardless of the costs involved. It can facilitate decision making and improve coordination among agencies when efficiency is at a premium. In general, there are three categories of information to be assembled:

• Natural Hazards information

• Information of natural ecosystems

• Information on population and infrastructure.

Valuable information on individual hazards in a study area may appear on maps with varying scales, coverage, and detail, but these disparate maps are difficult to use in risk analyses or in deciding on suitable mitigation strategies. Information from several of them can be combined in a single map to give a composite picture of the magnitude, frequency and area of effect of all the hazards.

The GIS can be used for hazards management at different levels of development planning. At the State level, it can be used in hazard assessments for resource analysis and project identification. At the district and local level, it can be used to formulate investment projects and specific mitigation strategies.

The assessments of risks and vulnerabilities will have to be constantly revised and therefore a regular mechanism should be established for this. The use of GIS in this regard would be highly beneficial, as the primary data can be easily updated and corresponding assessments can be made.

A special effort will have to be undertaken to provide for hazard assessment in highly urbanised locations and look at the existing infrastructure and systems in terms of their capacity to sustain the increasing demands and their vulnerability to various disasters.

Emphasis should be placed on expanding observation and monitoring systems, especially in areas of the region where the data is scarce and risk is high. Reliable feedback information on warning systems, public reception and response and susceptibility of the warning system, to damage should also be collected.

• establish or upgrade observation equipment and networks
• monitor the hazard properly
• improve quality of forecast and warning
• disseminate warnings quickly through the warning systems.
• undertake disaster simulation exercises.

Space technologies such as remote sensing, satellite communication and Global Positioning Systems (GPS) have been widely used in monitoring the occurrence of different types of disasters and in evaluating the losses and the impact.

Remote sensing is useful to hazard management for focusing on priority areas, verifying small-scale data interpretations and providing information about features. It is possible through remote sensing to identify areas of potential exposure to hazards, so that measures to reduce the social and economic impact of potential disasters can be introduced in the planning process. Remote sensing can be used for mapping of areas susceptible to disasters.

Apart from monitoring and observations through use of GPS and remote sensing, (basically activities carried out by State or Central government institutions like Bhaba Atomic Research Centre (BARC), Meteorological department, MERI etc.), applied research on formulating various mitigation strategies specific to a district or a local area, can be carried out through educational institutions or universities located in the region.

Universities or technical educational institutions should be encouraged to include disaster mitigation as a part of graduate training programmes. The contents of such a course can be location-specific to the institution. For example, institutions located at areas of high seismic risk (like the Deccan Plateau) can have earthquake mitigation as a specialisation, whereas more flood-prone areas (like the Konkan region) can have flood mitigation topics. Existing engineering and architectural colleges can incorporate these elements in their syllabus.

Research and studies should be undertaken on various aspects of disasters and their reduction, with national and international assistance if required, on such topics as: the assessment and mapping of hazards, early warning systems, the effects of deforestation, effects of changing land-use patterns and urbanisation and specific vulnerabilities of various systems such as power, sewer, transport etc., on the incidence and damage caused by disasters and the countermeasures required; and the application of remote sensing and GIS technologies in hazard, forecasting, warning, assessment and management. Non-structural approaches, social and developmental policies, institutional arrangements, community preparedness and response capacity are some of the areas in which research can be undertaken.

Such steps would lead to the formulation of specific mitigation measures, more appropriate to the area. Community based mitigation measures combined with scientific knowledge would expand the existing knowledge of the local community, as well as the students due to the increased interaction. A comprehensive database on mitigation measures can also be generated in this manner.

At the same time, it is essential that this database on the mitigative measures are communicated to, and understood by the local self - governments and local administrators, who might be involved in giving clearances and permissions for various projects.

The Disaster Management Action Plan for Maharashtra State intends to influence the present institutional arrangements to the extent that the capacity of each of the components, within the institutional arrangements, is improved. This is proposed to be done through capacity building of the line departments on the one hand, and providing an organisational structure such as EOC at the state level and DCRs at the district level. The efficiency of such an exercise will largely depend on the type of preparedness measures, coupled with necessary training inputs undertaken.

One of the most critical components of the Mitigation Strategy is the training to be imparted to the officials and staff of the various departments involved at the state and the district level. Through the training inputs it is visualised that both information and methodology will be shared with the concerned actors. The training activity will be undertaken both at state level through YASHADA and at the district level through NGOs, government training institutions and institutions affiliated to universities and research centres.

The need for action and intervention in a disaster situation is at multiple levels and cuts across various sectors. The quality of intervention depends a lot on the inter-sectoral, inter-departmental coordination and efficient teamwork Thus, it is pertinent to assess the specific training requirements of the key personnel to be involved in the intervention.

Training Needs Assessment (TNA) exercises for different categories and levels of functionaries, will enable identification of the gaps that need to be attended to through training activities. These will be done by assessment of the level of knowledge, attitudes and skills, with respect to the task to be undertaken and the expected levels of knowledge, attitudes and skills. Preparation of training modules and materials based on such TNA exercises will be undertaken by the training institutions.

The premier administrative training institution, YASHADA, at Pune, has a Centre for Disaster Management, established with the assistance from UNDP, to play a pivotal role both at the state level and at the national level.

Upgrading and strengthening of the Centre for Disaster Management at YASHADA is to be therefore, considered as a part of overall mitigation strategy. It is intended that the Centre will organise training for state level and district level officials, officials from line departments, as well as major NGOs, and private sector organisations.

The implementation strategy envisages that the NGOs, private sector organisations and other government training institutions will, in turn, organise training and simulation exercises at the district and community level, in order to ensure preparedness from the grass-roots.

1. Upgradation of training technology.
2. Refining the methodologies for Training Needs Assessment and Community Needs Assessment.
3. Updating Risk Analysis and Vulnerability Assessment.
4. Development of training materials and preparation of training modules.
5. Refining the methodologies for training and simulation both at the Centre as well as at the community level.
6. Undertaking training programmes and simulation exercises. Simulation exercises can be carried out once every year under both real time and compressed time conditions.
7. Introduction of GIS at district levels.
8. Establishing system of plan upgradation based on GIS.
9. Development of State Resource Centre for disaster information and documentation

3.3.2.2 NGOs, Private Sector, Government Training Institutions

The non-governmental organisations play an important role in disaster management and provide valuable resources and expert manpower. Their strength lies in the choice of their manpower, the informality in operations and flexibility in procedures. Their capacity to reach out to community groups and their sensitivity to local traditions of the community, gives them an added advantage during a disaster situation. Some of the agencies, both from within and outside the state have evolved technical expertise and capabilities which can be brought into managing typical issues. These organisations enjoy a fair degree of autonomy and flexibility and hence, can respond to changing needs immediately.

NGOs generally work on well-defined problems and issues and hence, the resources are generally ear-marked for specific activities and programmes. Particularly, in the mitigation efforts, it may therefore, be necessary that special efforts are made towards capacity building of NGOs to enable them to carry out disaster management activities. These could include their contribution for community preparedness, and actors in the management of disaster situations. Apart from orienting these NGOs towards Disaster Management Action Plans, the mitigation strategy will consider capacity building of these NGOs as resource groups for community preparedness by providing necessary inputs for improving their infrastructure and communication capabilities, particularly in vulnerable areas, thereby integrating them with the communication network of the district.

Private sector, including the Sugar Cooperatives in Maharashtra, with their strong resource base, professional competence and infrastructure facilities, will be very consciously brought into the mitigation strategy. Institutional arrangements such as MARG, may have a significant role to play within a well-defined geographical area. Sugar Cooperatives in Maharshtra have an added advantage of their contacts with the villages around. Currently, most of the sugar cooperatives are engaged in providing various services such as education, health, recreation, credit facility to the communities and therefore have built a good rapport. However, possibilities of private sector or involvement beyond the local geographical area cannot be overlooked. Efforts will, therefore, be made to look at some of these actors in the mitigation strategy.

While at one level, training will be concentrated on providing information regarding disaster management, efforts will also be made to involve private sector contribution towards the mitigation strategy.

Mitigation through development policy and planning and appropriate steps through line departments in mitigation efforts, will have to be backed up through community efforts to ensure its effectiveness. Particularly in marginalised communities, with high concentration of poor, the capacity of the administration to intervene with mitigation efforts will be undermined if the community does not appreciate the linkage of these interventions with vulnerability reduction. Administrative intervention alone, therefore, will not be adequate.

At the community level, apart from households the stakeholders include, the local self governments (LSG), community based organisations (CBOs), NGOs and private sector initiatives providing services. It is these stakeholders who will have to define their role with respect to mitigation, that is, reduction of risk and vulnerability.

There is evidence to show that the local communities, in spite of their limitations and inadequacy of resources, have sufficient motivation, backed up by traditional knowledge to minimise and counter the impact of disasters through individual as well as collective actions.

Local governments, NGOs, private sector organisations, businesses, and individuals each have important roles to play in mitigating the impacts of hazards. A conscious effort therefore, on the part of community level actors, that is the LSGs, CBOs, NGOs including private sector, to adopt community based mitigation strategies, will strengthen and stabilise the efforts of development administration to evolve a comprehensive mitigation strategy. They must lead by example, adopting and practising the best mitigation techniques for all actions affecting its facilities and employees, thereby providing leadership and coordination.

Since most mitigation occurs at the local level, partnerships must be formed among all levels of government and the private sector to develop consensus on mitigation issues.

The district administration should encourage and support initiatives from LSGs, CBOs, NGOs and Private Sector for promoting community based mitigation strategies through Community Needs Assessment (CNA) Exercises. The review and updating of District Disaster Management Action Plan should include continuous review and planning of all such community mitigation efforts.

One of the pre-requisites before development of such strategies, would involve the training and orientation of these community level actors to appreciate and understand the importance of grass-root initiatives, methods and techniques of mobilising such initiatives. Their appreciation of the capacity of the poor will further enhance their capabilities to reach out to those who are the most vulnerable and at risk within the system.

Before organisations, communities and individuals can reduce their risk from hazards, they need to know the nature of the threat and its potential impact on them and the community. Achieving widespread public awareness of hazards, the options for reducing risk or impact and how to carry out specific mitigation measures, will facilitate informed decisions on where to live, purchase property, or locate a business. Local decision makers will know where to locate and appropriately construct critical facilities, to reduce potential damage from hazards. Communities must be fully aware of its vulnerability to natural hazards as also means to reduce their impacts, before it can insist upon and support actions to mitigate the impacts and take the individual steps necessary to protect lives and property. Generating this level of awareness is perhaps the most challenging task. The public must view hazard mitigation as a basic component of civic responsibility. Much is already known about the potential for and impacts of natural hazards and the preventive actions that can be taken to mitigate those impacts.

The community awareness and training activities will basically be carried out in the form of training programmes through NGOs, Private Sector, Government Training Institutions. Apart from spreading awareness of disasters, the focus will essentially be on community capacity building, including formation of MARG and CERTs. These organisations will also organise simulation exercises on a regular basis in identified disaster prone areas, as a part of mitigation strategy.

Techniques for articulating this knowledge in a way that impels action by individuals, private sector organizations, NGOs and local governments must be developed, refined, and put into practice. This would entail developing

• A strategic all-hazards awareness, training, education plan and an evaluation of the most effective methods and messages, involving hazard-resistant planning, designing safety programs and community risk - reduction activities. Additionally, this would include communicating the achievements, progress and success of the mitigation strategy and evaluating and updating tools (documents, plans, training courses, and other mitigation guidance materials) to reflect state-of-the-art technology and engineering practices.
• A programme targeted at State and local elected officials, to encourage the development of legislation and administrative policies that support hazard mitigation.
• A programme to encourage public-private partnerships, to educate employees and customers about mitigation.
• Providing a training programme for teachers to ensure that they understand disasters, likely effects and the precautions that should be taken.
• Include in the academic curriculum information about disasters and the precautionary measures to be taken.
• Organise disaster simulations within schools to review, with staff and students emergency procedures to be followed in the event of a disaster.
• Promote publicity and educational sessions through use of mass media including television.

3.3.4.1 Mobilising Community Efforts for Mitigation Measures through LSGs, CBOs, NGOs and Private Sector

The community should be helped to determine ways to avoid or reduce the impact of the next disaster. The following activities are a suggestive list of mitigation efforts which need to be promoted, by encouraging local communities to undertake either at individual, household or community level to avoid loss of life, damage to property and crop.

1. Assist in disposal of properties located in disaster-prone areas eg. flooding areas, landslides prone areas etc., and purchase of safe sites in return.

2. Technical guidance to rebuild or retrofit houses that can sustain the shaking of an earthquake or high winds and ensuring availability of appropriate materials through local government, hardware dealer or private building contractors.

3. Encourage households to undertake not only corrective repairs, but also preventive repairs.

4. Explain options for flood - proofing houses, like elevation, drainage etc.

5. Encourage compliance in construction with local building codes that pertain to seismic, flood, fire and wind hazards. Encourage compliance by the contractors and inspection by local authorities. Organise community level training with respect to these.

6. Determine ways to prevent hazards such as securing light fixtures, moving heavy or breakable objects to low shelves, etc.

7. Provide information specific to the community and encourage community exercises for Community Needs Assessment (CNA) and analysis of vulnerability and risk. Make source documents such as local disaster management plan, zoning and building norms, DDMAP available to local communities.

8. Promote appropriate climate for disaster insurance for life, property and crop.

Demonstration Houses : At vantage points in villages or blocks, demonstration of housing units indicating the various technology features and options should be built by the Government/NGOs/Community. Put them into use in all the community buildings of public importance. This can be done in buildings like village offices, primary health centres, community centre, anganwadi, balwadi, etc. That way these buildings of high visibility and frequent local use would themselves be the medium for demonstrating the right level of strengthening features needed. At the same time, it would also emphasise the importance of having essential installations, such as schools where children are most vulnerable, protected.

Perhaps the most important need at the State level is to strengthen or develop capacity to undertake disaster mitigation strategies. After assessing and mapping natural hazards experienced in the past, and analysing possible future risks and their potential social and economic effects, the adequacy of the existing disaster reduction measures can be evaluated.

Disaster vulnerability assessment should be incorporated in the state development process so that projects and future investments reduce, rather than increase vulnerability. Areas frequently exposed to severe hazards should seriously consider investing an appropriate portion of the state revenue in disaster reduction activities for sustainable development. In order to overcome resource constraints and to be effective, the action plan for disaster reduction should be incorporated in the overall economic and social development plans. The development programmes can be monitored to ensure that hazard reduction components are applied, such as building up the infrastructure and increasing the resilience to disaster in the long term.

No matter what loss-reduction strategy is used, major reductions in losses of life and property come only when the emphasis shifts from reaction to anticipation. That is, the emphasis must be on proactive pre-disaster measures rather than post-disaster response.

Therefore, it becomes essential for a permanent administrative structure which will monitor the developmental activities across departments, providing suggestions for incorporating necessary mitigation measures. Such a task can be performed by the existing Relief Commissioner’s Office in Mantralaya, which will also serve as the Emergency Operations Centre during disasters. This office should also ensure proper enforcement of existing regulations and acts. The Relief Commissioner will also be the authority in-charge of the Vulnerability Reduction Fund. This fund can be used by the Relief Commissioner to provide incentives to developmental projects where mitigation measures have been adopted.

At the same time, professionals like architects, structural engineers etc., and risk managers in business organisations dealing with hazardous chemicals, can be asked to form consortiums which will look into, and incorporate mitigation aspects for all projects in their field. Existing bodies like the Chamber of Commerce, Confederation of Industry, Agriculture Produce Market can also be asked to promote mitigation measures amongst their members.

Over the years, the government efforts to regulate relief and rehabilitation, (R & R) with respect to various disasters have resulted in a number of policy guidelines and omnibus orders including some GRs. It is therefore necessary to take stock of these existing instruments and bring them under the purview of Disaster Management Legislation and R&R policy. The existing ad-hoc measures will have to be replaced to the extent possible with more definite arrangements. This would help in communicating the expectations of the administration.

Apart from intent and overall objectives, the policy statement should specifically emphasise the need for reaching out to the poor and the marginalised. The R&R policy can incorporate various packages for R&R specific to disasters and extent of impact on the community, and the family implying entitlement of families and communities to R&R. The R&R policy should also include resettlement and development of safe sites. Both directly and indirectly impacted families should be brought within the purview of R&R.

Disaster Management Legislation should be primarily aimed at operationalising Disaster Management Action Plan documents at the state and the district levels. The scope for community participation should be clearly emphasised and given a legal mandate.

Strengthening of line departments, developing training capabilities, partnership with NGOs and private sector, disaster funding, insurance, mitigation requirements etc are some of the critical areas which must find appropriate expression in the legislation. The legislation should affirm the value of mitigation

The continued development and application of hazard mitigation measures will depend largely on the existence of stable funding sources and effective incentives that encourage mitigation in both the public and private sectors. Mitigation must become a primary consideration in all State actions and linked with grants and loan programmes.

More emphasis is needed on pre-event planning, action and on the development of state funding mechanisms.

• Developing mechanisms to provide stable sources of funding for preparedness and mitigation activities at all levels of government. This may include setting up of Vulnerability Reduction Fund at the state level.

• A review of the current incentives and disincentives for undertaking both pre and post-disaster mitigation actions will determine what additional incentives and disincentives are required to ensure cost-effectiveness. This should include the review of certain policies which are actually subsidising risk.

• Incentives for relocation of commercial and residential activities outside the hazardous and disaster - prone areas.

• Incentives for retrofitting of commercial and residential structures located in disaster - prone areas.

• Providing resources for state and local governments to ensure adequate levels of coordination and effective implementation of mitigation activities.

• Introducing disaster insurance, based on community rating systems that recognize adoption and enforcement by communities of building codes, that contain all-hazards building standards.

• Establishing Disaster Relief Fund at the state level for meeting the requirements of immediate relief.

• Encouraging the formation of partnerships among private industry, academia, and the state and local governments to maximize resources for mitigation activities. Major business organisations like the Chamber of Commerce, Merchants’ Chamber, Agriculture Produce Market should be contacted for introducing mitigation measures in all their projects and also providing funds for state sponsored mitigation activities. Such activities can be provided with tax incentives if necessary.

• Credit finance and housing finance companies should make it mandatory for structures to follow specified building codes or zoning regulations as part of loan requirement

Insurance is a mechanism for spreading the cost of losses both over time and over a relatively large number of similarly exposed risks. The introduction of disaster linked insurance should be actively pursued and insurance cover should be available not just for life but also for household goods, cattle, structures and crops.

Since insurance premiums are based on the location of a structure within the disaster-prone areas, and are determined primarily by the extent of risk, higher rates may be applied to structures subject to high risk.

• More stringent enforcement by lenders of the mandatory purchase requirements
• Increasing public awareness of the hazard
• Imposing risk disclosure requirements on real - estate agents
• Offering special insurance coverage and policy riders
• Maintaining premiums at affordable levels.

One of the difficulties in promoting disaster insurance is that those who are at highest risk have the least capacity to pay the premiums. Possibilities of group/community insurance should also be available, particularly for the marginalised communities.

The insurance agency may promote a Community Rating System to encourage communities to go beyond the required standards of minimum safety. The incentive can be a reduction in insurance premiums for policyholders within communities that take approved actions to reduce disaster losses.

The physical impacts of hazards can be reduced by preventing or modifying the occurrence of the hazard, such as in the case of floods. This can be done very effectively at relatively small catchments by land-use planning and management, particularly in areas where structural measures would be too difficult or, too expensive to implement.

Rapid urbanization has led to higher concentrations of people living in hazardous areas and consequently to higher losses when disasters occur. As urbanization also alters the response of a watershed to rainfall, many large cities of the region are becoming increasingly vulnerable to flooding.

Long-term disaster reduction efforts should, therefore, aim at promoting appropriate land use in the disaster-prone areas, by harmonizing land suitability with agricultural development strategies. High investment industries and installations, as well as important infrastructural elements, should not be located in areas that are susceptible to disaster impact.

Fire and industrial accidents can be reduced if the land-use planning ensures separation of industrial units from residential areas, and or fire - prone industries from other industries. Licensing authorities of industries should examine these locational aspects.

The measures to promote proper land use should include both legislative and economic inducements and creation of public awareness of proper land practices. Formulation of land-use policies for long-term sustainable development is therefore imperative.

Proper long-term land use planning by incorporating all geology-related data available, would identify and allocate hazard-free areas for industrial and urban development, and thus be by far the most effective way of dealing with disasters.

Large concentrations of people living in hazardous zones, not capable or willing to be moved to safer areas, deserve to have at least a fighting chance of survival in the event of a disaster. Authorities in charge of disaster management should therefore have at their disposal reliable estimates of the type, severity, and location of the damage likely to occur. Damage to property can be limited, if, for example, building codes are enforced.

Introduction of the legal enforcement of property insurance against damage inflicted by disaster events may be considered as one of the most efficient ways to ensure that building codes are followed, and properly allocated according to realistic criteria based on actual geological conditions.

Regulations have a potentially greater impact on loss reduction than any other single management tool and have been widely used. Development that conforms to regulations is less prone to damage than pre-existing development. Regulation is largely a local government responsibility. Effective enforcement often requires more training, personnel, and financial resources than many communities can provide. Regulations cannot provide full protection for, they have a limited impact on existing buildings and infrastructure prone to hazards.

The minimum regulations vary depending upon the risk studies and mapping that have been done in the community.

Building safely begins by choosing a safe site. A lot of protection can be gained by careful location. For some hazards, like floods or land instability, siting is the most important protection measure. For other hazards, like earthquakes or cyclones, where a building is sited is less critical than how well it is built, but location can still be important in determining how strongly the hazard is experienced and the potential for follow-on hazards causing damage.

The degree of choice that people have in siting their structures is highly variable: some may have little or no choice, others may have a large area within which to choose a site. The hazard considerations of a site are outlined so that those with some freedom of choice can exercise it protect themselves, to existing sites, to reduce their hazard potential.

Siting can be considered on a number of scales- at a community scale, where perhaps there is a building improvement programme to locate or relocate a community within a geographical area, and at individual scale - when choosing a site for a building within a locality.

In locating a new town, village or housing estate, the hazard content is only one of the many factors that should be taken into account to make a successful settlement. It should therefore be considered at an early stage of site selection. The penalties of siting on ground with possible hazard problems should be balanced against the advantages of locating these for other reasons. When a large site is needed, it is possible that some areas within the land chosen will be safer than others. Therefore, sensitivity to the use of land within the settlement will be important.

4. EVALUATION

Evaluation would help in reassessing and examining the available options. The objectives of mitigation strategy will keep evolving from one level of safety to another. The proposed mitigation strategy is not static and is subject to alteration and redefinition over time, based on systematic assessments of its utility and the contribution to achieving the mitigation goals.

Such assessments will assist policy makers and the public to learn whether mitigation activities or policies are reducing future damages, and hardship in a reasonable time, and whether such benefits match or exceed the costs.

• Periodic surveys of the end-beneficiaries of mitigation programmes, through structured instruments and through review sessions (workshops, seminars, conferences etc.)

• Periodic structured reporting of progress in implementing the mitigation strategy

• Convening Annual Disaster Mitigation Conference at state level to focus public attention on the mitigation activities and to evolve consensus for the action agenda.

5. THE ROLE OF THE MEDIA IN HAZARD MITIGATION AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT

Reducing the losses in life and property caused by disasters, is a compelling objective now receiving worldwide attention. Scientists and engineers now believe that, the knowledge and technology base potentially applicable to the mitigation of hazards, has grown so dramatically in recent years that, it would be possible, through a concerted co-operative international effort, to save many lives and reduce human suffering, dislocation and economic losses. Communications are central to this effort for public education, early warning, evacuation, and post-disaster relief.

The media acts as the link between the common man and technical information about the risk and the hazards. They absorb and transform technical information provided by either experts or mediators and relay the information to the public in a simple manner.

The strengths of the mass media lie partly in their independence from governments or other agencies, and partly in their ability to attract large audiences who regard them as reasonably credible information sources.

The capabilities of communications, data-gathering, and data-management technology have leaped forward with our increasing knowledge about the origins and behaviour of disasters, and the mitigation of their effects. Indeed, advances in telecommunications and computer sciences are among the major contributors to the recognition that technology can do much to blunt the effects of hazards.

Mass communication is inextricably entwined with disasters and hazard mitigation. The electronic and print media, reflecting great public interest and concern, provide extensive coverage of disasters, particularly those with strong visual impact. And increasingly-as forecasters have gained the ability to predict, the media have covered the near-term prediction and relief planning phases of the event. The media have significantly improved the level and sophistication of their pre and post-disaster coverage in recent years by using new technology and consulting technical experts better able to describe the causes and mitigation of disaster.

The print media, too, have benefited from advanced technology. Facsimile transmission and closer linkages between reporters and specialists in government and academia have deepened understanding of the causes and impacts of these disastrous events, and, no doubt, have had some effect in reducing long-term exposure and risk.

Clearly, mass communications technology already has had a significant impact on how the public learns of and perceives the impact of disasters. And as the costs are further reduced and the capabilities of these technologies improve, the level and sophistication of information presented to the public will also be enhanced.

In addition to the vastly improved opportunities that telecommunications technologies have provided, to report on prospective, ongoing and recent disasters and relief efforts, their capabilities have slowly shifted our thoughts from post-disaster relief to more effective means of coping with sudden disasters.

Better linkages between the public media and the community of disaster mitigation researchers and practitioners, whether scientific, technological, or service-oriented can make disaster management efforts more effective and more important, can accelerate the shift in both the public's and the administrations' thoughts towards effective pre-disaster initiatives.

To this end, the electronic and print media could embark on a two-step process to enhance the quality of its hazard-related services.

The first step is to foster still-closer linkages with the research community, and share their vast information-gathering and transmission resources, when appropriate and available, with disaster-mitigation organizations.

In the post-disaster phase, for example, the facilities established by the media to report on an event are often far more robust and more promptly operational than those of relief organizations, whether governmental or voluntary. These channels should be available as means for better assessing the nature and extent of damage, local relief requirements, the need for specialized recovery equipment, and unique problems or opportunities.

5.2 Integration of the Media into Disaster Mitigation Activities and during disasters

The second step in building links with the news organizations is to more effectively link the media into an intensified effort in disaster mitigation, including such activities as

• Risk assessment
• Avoidance measures
• Early warning and evacuation
• Public awareness and education
• Organization for self-help and effective response to risk.

The media are seen as relayers of official information and measures, which the citizens are expected to undertake immediately and at the same time are conduits for relaying information through inter-governmental structures and channels, to bring the citizens, concerns to official attention.

In the event of a disaster, media has a responsibility of reporting the same on a day-to-day basis. Such reporting can contribute to

• Bringing true stories of disaster to public
• Stimulating public response to needs and sufferings caused by disaster
• Creating tremendous pressure on agencies and government to get involved
• Injecting efficiency by reducing response time
• Motivating public and generating disaster assistance and resources.

However, care should be taken to safeguard the authenticity of the information and the credibility of the media. This can be done by

• Avoiding reinforcing stereotypes that the people carry about disaster “victims”
• Promoting sensitivity as against sensationalism
• Highlighting both the positive and the negative aspects of disaster management
• Cross-checking information from the disaster site as well as the official sources.

During disasters, it is important to organise regular press meetings and issue press releases. The importance of the efforts of various non-governmental agencies engaged in relief operations, their specific problems should be and through such briefings. This will ensure highlighted transparency in all operations, concern, and commitments to those affected.

A rational approach to media involvement in disaster management would depend that the media is familiarised as a part of preparedness with the disaster management action plans, roles and responsibilities, strengths and limitations with respect to administrative capabilities. This will prepare the ground for utilising the technological and human resources available with mass media. Tapping the media's capabilities can, and will improve the preparedness and response to disasters. Conversely, the study and application of disaster mitigation techniques can enhance the quality of, and interest in the services the media can provide. The media have the definitive opportunity to play a leadership role in the transition in thinking and action away from post-disaster relief and towards, preparedness and disaster mitigation.

6. MITIGATION MEASURES

The level of disaster preparedness is a major factor in mitigation of natural disasters. With the available technology, some disasters, particularly, cyclones and floods, can be forecast. However, not all the people can be warned in time, and in many places there are not enough disaster preparedness measures, such as adequate number of easily accessible cyclone shelters, and evacuation equipment. There is a need for dissemination of the measures to be taken before, during and after a disaster event. Particularly preparedness measures need to be practised periodically.

Environmental planning would also be necessary to avoid or mitigate losses from disasters, by using such instruments as land-use planning and disaster management. Mitigation of the effects of disasters and protection against hazards require both structural and non-structural measures. The traditional approach to reducing losses relied upon the implementation of structural mitigation measures such as the construction of dams, levies and channel improvements.

In recent years, the inadequacy of programmes based solely on structural measures has been recognized. It has been suggested that numbers attempts be made Numerous attempts have been suggested to employ non-structural loss prevention measures, as well to assist in minimizing losses through exercising control over development in disaster-prone areas. Non-structural mitigation measures typically concentrate on identifying hazard prone areas and limiting their use. Examples include land-use zoning, selection of building sites, tax incentives, insurance programmes , relocation of residents to and the establishment of a warning system.

Disaster-proof structures, such as shelters, raised platforms, emergency food, grain silos drinking water storage tanks and health facilities, can be built in high-risk areas, but easy access to such structures must be ensured. Design codes for buildings and other structures need to be constantly reviewed in the light of previous experience. From time to time it could be necessary to revise disaster-management regulations and disaster-resistant designs.

Many of the public buildings are probably vulnerable to damage from earthquakes, cyclones, winds, or other hazards. PWD is the main engineering department responsible for construction and maintenance of all public buildings and installations. As a part of mitigation strategy, the Public Works Department will have to consider both the structural and material standards so as to ensure that these structures and installation, are sufficiently protected from the disaster impact. Apart from adopting the building codes, the conceptual design should take into account the following :

• Location of the building
• Zoning and building codes requirements
• Functional relations between various sections
• Geometry, shape or composition of the building
• Structural system
• Building materials
• Vulnerability to specific disasters
• Possible impact of disasters on occupants
• Type of beneficiaries or users
• Special needs of beneficiaries or users
• Nature of occupancy by beneficiaries and users – residential, non-residential.

Design decisions should be taken in consultation with the user-departments/institutions and all those professionals who for some reason are involved with its conception and execution in the early stages of the execution of the project.

It is suggested that the building performance should be guided by the following objectives:

• The damage caused by the disaster should be reparable and should not be a threat to life.
• Users, beneficiaries and visitors should be protected during the disaster.
• The emergency services of the organisation should remain operational after the disaster.
• The occupants and rescue, emergency personnel must be able to move about safely inside the installations.

These objectives attempt to guarantee that the organisation continues to fulfil its role by putting into effect its own emergency plan following a disaster.
At the same time, it is possible to reduce the vulnerability of existing buildings through minor adaptation or alteration, thereby enhancing the safety of these facilities and installations. The usual methods for retrofitting existing structures generally include the insertion of the following elements:
• Walls on the outside of the building
• Buttresses
• Walls in the interior of the building
• Portico fill-in walls
• Specially anchored frames
• Covering of columns and beams
• Construction of a new frame system.

• Use disaster resistant high tension towers and poles in the new construction of lines, and in any replacement of existing towers and poles.

• Set poles to an adequate enough depth, to prevent overturning or leaning from wind pressure, when the ground is waterlogged.

• Upgrade design specifications, and quality of construction for concrete poles, to ensure that they are cyclone resistant.

• Upgrade the specifications for wooden poles, to ensure that mature timber is used, that poles are cured adequately, and that the wood has been treated by a proper impregnation method against moisture and insect damage.

• Replace pole-mounted transformers with plinth-mounted transformers.

• Place underground the low tension main supply cables between transformer stations in urban areas, where economically feasible.

• Upgrade outside telecommunication equipment to withstand wind speeds of at least 120 mph (192 kmph).

• House electrical and switching equipment in storm-proof buildings above flood level.

• Replace overhead cables with underground armoured cables in areas of high vulnerability and where economically feasible.

• Pumping stations must be upgraded to ones damage-proof.

• Water tower and storage tanks should be designed to withstand cyclonic winds, earthquake and floods.

6.3 Specific Disaster Mitigation Measures

Modifying susceptibility to flood damage and disruption is the floodplain management strategy of avoiding dangerous, uneconomic, undesirable, or unwise use of the floodplain. The tools used to implement this strategy are regulations, development and redevelopment policies, floodproofing and elevation.

• Not permitting unrestricted new development in the hazard prone areaS
• Anchoring and floodproofing structures to be built in known floodprone areas
• Built-in safeguards for new water and sewage systems and utility lines from flooding
• Enforcing risk zone, base flood elevation, and floodway requirements
• Prohibition on development in wetlands
• Prescribing standards for different flood zones on flood maps.

To meet these requirements, local governments will have to adopt specific floodplain management or stormwater management regulations into zoning and subdivision regulations, housing and building codes, and resource protection regulations.

In low-lying areas, close to the coast, and on flat land in river valleys, there may be a potential for coastal or river flooding. In geologically younger river valleys, in mountains, and foothills there may be a potential for flash-flooding.

• Map the extent of land covered by past floodwaters
• Get an indication of the depth of past floodwaters
• Find out about the severity of past floods; how much damage they have caused, how fast they flowed and how much debris they left behind and
• Find out how often flooding has happened, over at least the past 20 years.

Land morphology is the main factor in determining how safe a site is against floodwaters.

In some cases, the only way to preclude future uses incompatible with the flood risk is to permanently evacuate a portion of a floodplain and to obtain full title on its development rights. Although this process (called "acquisition") is expensive, the long-term benefits in reduced floodplain losses, protection of natural resources, and public use of the land, may make it worthwhile.

Most redevelopment relating to flood loss reduction occurs after one or more major floods. Usually, a temporary moratorium is imposed to allow evaluation and planning. Unfortunately, legislative and regulatory requirements often encourage a quick return to the preflood status quo, wasting opportunities to mitigate and revitalize the area.

Floodproofing is the use of permanent, contingent, or emergency techniques to either prevent flood waters from entering buildings or to minimize the damages from water that does get in. Some of the techniques involve using water-tight seals, closures or barriers, using water-resistant materials, and temporarily relocating the contents of a building. Elevating a structure means raising it on fill, piers, or pilings so that it is above expected flood levels.

Most new floodplain structures should be designed to incorporate floodproofing and/or elevation. Floodproofing could be applied retroactively (“retrofitted”) to existing structures.

Modifying flooding is a floodplain management strategy of using structural means to divert the flood water. Structural measures dams, reservoirs, dikes, levies, floodwalls, channel alterations, high flow diversions, spillways, land treatment measures, shoreline protection works, and stormwater management facilities - permit deliberate changes in the volume of run-off, peak stage of the flood, time of rise and duration of flood waters, location of flooding, extent of area flooded, and velocity and depth of flood waters. The effectiveness of these measures for protecting property and saving lives has been well demonstrated. Flood control projects can save people- from anxiety, injury, and death and prevent economic losses.

One of the issue, that needs consideration, is how to deal with the ageing inventory of existing flood control structures. Many dams and reservoirs may be nearing or even past their design lives, and the flood control capacity of many reservoirs has been reduced by sedimentation. The financial resources are not available to undertake all required remedial actions.

Storing flood water in reservoirs can modify floods by reducing the speed at which the water flows, limiting the area flooded, and reducing and altering the timing of peak flows. However, misconceptions about or lack of understanding of dams can create an exaggerated sense of security. Reservoir sedimentation can significantly reduce flood control capacity. Competing uses of the reservoir can impair flood control. In addition, most dams are designed for purposes other than flood control, although they do have the temporary effect of flood reduction through storage.

The availability of water or power associated with dams, therefore, often attracts new developments, regardless of the flood risk or the ability of the dam to provide flood protection. Over time, without adequate land use regulations, encroachment onto the floodplain downstream of dams, can increase exposure to flooding. Once signs of dam failure become visible, breaching often occurs within minutes or a few hours, leaving little or no time for evacuation. The massive volume of water and its high velocity will cause severe damage.

Dikes, including levees and flood walls, can be thought of as dams built roughly parallel to a stream rather than across its channel, or parallel to the shorelines of lakes and other water bodies. Levees are generally constructed of earth, flood walls of masonry or steel. Although they can be effective in reducing flood losses, they are poorly designed and maintained.

Areas behind levees and flood walls may be at risk of greater than normal flood damage for several reasons. Many floodplain residents in those areas believe that they are protected from floods and do not think it necessary to take proper precautions. Development may also continue or accelerate, based on expected flood protection. A levee breach or flood wall failure, like a dam break, can release a large wave of flood waters with high velocity. After a breach, the downstream portion of the levee system may also act like a dam, catching and prolonging flooding of the once-protected area.

Channel alterations increase the flow-carrying capacity of a stream's channel and thereby reduce the height of a flood. The various types of alterations include straightening, deepening, or widening the channel, removing debris, paving the channel, raising or enlarging bridges and culverts, and removing other obstructions.

Alternative designs now developed include less straightening of channels, employ more gradual slopes, and use natural vegetation or riprap rather than concrete-lined channels. This minimizes destruction of fish and wildlife habitat, helps maintain water quality, and avoids undesirable downstream impacts.

Diversions intercept flood waters upstream of a damage-prone or constricted area and convey them around it through an artificial channel or a designated flow-way. Diversions may either completely reroute a stream or collect and transport only excessive or potentially damaging flows. A negative aspect of such diversions is the false sense of security that may prevail in the protected areas along with a lack of awareness that the floodway actually exists.

Stormwater management is the removal of water that falls directly onto properties, as opposed to flood water, that flows onto the property, from upstream sources or an ocean surge. Stormwater networks have historically been constructed in urban and agricultural areas to remove these waters. A significant problem occurs when an agricultural zone with an adequate Stormwater system is urbanised. Large areas are paved with roofs, roads, and parking, contributing to additional run-off. Often, shopping centres and other developments are placed on natural drainage ways. The pre-existing stormwater network becomes inadequate for its new urban use. Localised flooding then occurs. In an alternative approach often used in new developments today, run-off may be retained on the site, within a regional system, and total run-off within a watershed may be managed, so that discharges from different units reach the main channel, at different times to reduce peak flows downstream. Natural drainage systems may be used, instead of concrete-lined channels or enclosed pipes.

Quasi-natural methods such as beach nourishment, or artificial sand dune building, are often used, to attempt to restore an eroding beach, as well as protect development. However, these methods provide only temporary solutions, to chronic long-term erosion caused by the diminishing supply of sediment in the littoral system. They also require periodic renourishing during their 15 to 50 year life span.

Structures like seawalls, bulkheads, and revetments protect development, but are not intended to renourish or widen the beach. Erosion can occur in front of them because the natural movement of the shoreline gets affected. Such structures as breakwaters and jetties, which are designed, to protect harbours and navigation channels from wave action or to stabilise inlets, can also cause erosion on the down drift side, if they do not include a sand bypassing system.

Watershed Management measures reduce overland run-off from agricultural lands to streams or other waters by improving infiltration of rainfall into the soil, slowing and minimising run-off, and reducing the sedimentation that can clog stream channels or storage reservoirs. These techniques are most commonly, used in agricultural areas. They include maintaining trees, shrubbery and vegetative cover, terracing, slope stabilisation, using grass waterways, contour plowing, conservation tillage, and strip farming. Some measures involve building structures to retain or redirect run-off. Several land treatment measures involve little additional costs to the farmer, and some, such as no till or minimum tillage, actually reduce costs. Technical and financial assistance is provided through government and international development organisations. Although the impact of an individual measure is limited, extensive watershed management programs can effectively reduce flooding in small headwater areas.

After the Latur earthquake, MERI in its report has recommended rezoning of the state in view of the seismic activity observed in certain parts of the state. The mitigation strategy must review the existing seismic zoning to facilitate adoption of building codes for new constructions in various areas. Further, ways and means will have to be evolved to enforce compliance to recommended building codes in all new constructions through local planning bodies and municipal authorities. Additionally, compliance to building codes can be ensured by linking property insurance to such compliance.

• Build structures on rock or stiff soil.

• The most important element of safe siting in earthquake prone areas is to avoid being affected by land instabilities.

• Different types of ground do shake with different severity in an earthquake. Softer soils and those with high water content generally shake more than rocky sites. Wherever possible site structures on firmer ground. This will reduce the severity of vibrations experienced in an earthquake.

• Earthquakes sometimes cause liquefaction of soils. Loose soils on flat land, usually with a high water content can suddenly lose their strength with strong vibrations earthquakes. Soil temporarily turns to liquid, causing structures that are built on them to sink or overturn.

• Capital intensive infrastructure, hazardous facilities and materials, and other important buildings should not be located in the vicinity of a known fault.

It is essential to undertake studies of designs and materials used in existing conventional housing and structures in each of the seismic zones and examine the same in the context of recommended building codes. This would enable identification of the need for retrofitting of the existing structures and dwellings. The earthquake rehabilitation cell of GOM has prepared a manual for restructuring of non-engineered structures, which would be useful for the rural areas. This report indicates the potential of similar exercises in other parts of the state. The system of retrofitting should also be explored as a part of mitigation strategy, including linking with property insurance as in the case of new constructions.

Since early warning is not possible in case of earthquakes, the best choice is to ensure that seismicity is monitored and integrated with the GIS. Maharashtra situation indicates that some parts of the state have been adequately provided with the instrumentation. It is necessary that mitigation strategy considers instrumentation of all other areas in order to have a total assessment of the seismic activity. This would enable reconfirmation and upgradation of microzonation activities. The government may consider setting up of a technical team comprising scientists to look into the aspects of instrumentation and prepare instrumentation plan for the state. The specific instruments required for these purposes include :

a. Microgravimeter : The delineation of minor faults, regionally and locally, needs sophisticated instruments which can detect the minor mass displacements. The microgravimeter can monitor minute mass changes due to minor faults on a continuous basis. The cost along with necessary accessories and softwares is approximately Rs. 40 lakhs.

b. Telemetered seismic array : The seismic activity in certain areas will be constantly monitored and telemetered to a central laboratory. The cost of this instrument is about Rs. 30 lakhs.

c. Electromagnetic Tomography System : The system deals with continuous monitoring of naturally occuring electric and magnetic signals at various places near the active fault zones. Unit costs approximately Rs. 10 lakhs (for fabrication of five units).

d. Electromagnetic Radiation during earthquake : Unit costs approximately Rs. 2 lakhs.

6.2.3 Cyclones

• Certain factors can make some sites more exposed than others.

• Coastal areas are particularly prone. Cyclones originate out at sea and become hazardous when they come ashore. They also drive the sea level up to cause coastal flooding.

• Estuaries and river deltas will flood during heavy rainfall associated with the cyclone.

• Exposed sites on the tops of hills or cliff tops. Winds can be up to 15 % stronger on elevated sites.

• Valley necks or open-ended valleys, through which winds may be channelled.

• When siting in areas that suffer from high winds:

• Select a sheltered site. Use any topographical effects or natural defences that may protect the building or settlement from the prevailing wind.

• Consider the orientation of the site. Shelter behind hills from prevailing wind directions.

• Create wind breaks by planting trees or making strong bush fences. Settlements with many trees experience lower wind speeds.

• The layout of the building on the site can also influence the way winds affect them. Generally, settlements that are built in close clusters are known to suffer more damage than those that have reasonable spacing between buildings. Large buildings can be used to shelter smaller buildings.

A guide to safer layout would include:

• Site buildings some distance from adjacent structures (at least three times the plan dimension of the building).

• Site buildings in staggered formations rather than straight lines.

• Keep buildings away from tall trees that might fall down.

• Maximise street widths. Where possible they should be wider than 6m.

• In cyclone prone areas it is also important to site to minimise damage from floods, and landslides.

This covers the sea coast protection through coastal to avoid sea erosion, construction of earth bunds along coast, development of shelter plantation all along the coast line to provide a buffer or cushion against the onslaught of high speed cyclonic storms of 150 to 250 Km/hr. The shelter protection plantation belt of Casuarina trees, which are fast growing recyclables, have substantially helped to protect the human settlements provided in the leeward side of cyclones, due to the resistance of the trees to withstand the force.

It is important to provide adequate storm water drainage to the sites, and maintain the system through periodic inspections, so that the system does not obstruct flow in natural courses and cause inundation in periods of cyclones. For settlements in low-lying areas this assumes great importance. Roads are required to be provided with camber, side drains and culverts to carry away water into the next level of drains of the drainage system.

Another important aspect is to ensure that settlements are not provided in natural hydraulic flood paths. Cleaning and widening/deepening of natural drainage paths, which get affected due to silting and other causes, should be taken up, on a regular basis, as part of periodic maintenance work.

In addition to the various measures that can be covered under pre-disaster activity, another major initiative that can be taken is to ensure that least amount of damages are caused at the time of occurrence of a cyclone. This can be done by providing appropriate strengthening and construction resistant features in housing and building programmes to be taken up in different vulnerable areas.

The country is divided into various wind pressure zones, and the coastal areas with the frequent visitation of high velocity cyclones are specially identified, and there are specific design codes to provide the needed wind protection and cyclonic effects. The ABC of cyclone protection housing are:

The methodology to ensure all the three facets of cyclone resistant construction have been identified for various elements, and if these are provided for, the houses/buildings built with these measures, are able to substantially mitigate the damage during the occurrence of natural disaster. The large amount of coastal housing constructed over the last decade with various cyclone resistant features, have been able to inputs for various elements of construction have been able to give up the necessary protection.

There are several considerations to be made while designing a house in its three dimensional form, which are related to shape, orientation, height and positioning of openings in a building, for ensuring the least extent of damage during cyclonic storms. (Such details can be obtained from HUDCO, NBO, NID and other research institutions).

The cyclone resistant shelters can be built at individual level or at community level.

• The first option is where a new house built, to be totally cyclone resistant, with specific design standards and construction methods.

• The second option is, where only the frame and roof are designed to be cyclone resistant and permanent(partial). The occupants can then progressively upgrade the house as and when feasible.

• The third option is, to make a part of the house cyclone resistant either by making a new addition, or reinforcing an existing room (retrofitting). It is called an ‘in-house’ shelter. During a cyclonic storm, the occupants seek shelter in this part. This option reduces the cost of cyclone-resistant construction and extensive modification of traditional designs is not necessary.

• The key principle underlying cyclone resistant building construction is the secure tying up of all elements in the buildings from foundation to roof.

At a community level, the local administration has to provide temporary cyclone shelter. At the time of cyclone to the nearby villages. These shelters, with built-in safety against high wind velocity and heavy rainfall, should be at specially selected sites and within easy reach of the people most affected. It should have an all weather access. Educational buildings or places of worship may also be designed as cyclone shelters, for evacuation and temporary occupation.

As a means to evacuate and shelter the people likely to be affected, the most important among the various action programmes is, designing and constructing special multi-purpose anti-cyclone community relief shelters, for providing safe and secure accommodation to vulnerable population. The cyclone relief shelters can take care of populations ranging from 50 to 300 people (men, women and children). These are provided as multi purpose community facility spaces to be used as adult education, primary health centres, primary schools, vocational training centres, and community centres. These will be at elevated areas to be protected from floods and also with proviso for community kitchens, ensuring water supply, sanitation, battery operated electric supply and in some cases helipad landing facility on roof for relief supply etc.

Initiative can also be taken to develop a low cost, anti-cyclone core unit, designed to provide safe secure deposit of personal belongings during cyclones, to each family in the existing villages. This would help to resume economic activity soon on return.

6.3.4. Epidemics

The Public Health Department (PHD) is the nodal agency responsible for monitoring and control of epidemics. Local governments and municipal authorities also have a responsibility for taking appropriate steps in this context. Therefore, success of mitigation strategy for control of epidemics will depend on the type of coordination that exists between the PHD and local authorities.

1. Surveillance and warning
2. Preventive and Promotive measures
3. Strengthening institutional infrastructure.

Situation analysis indicates the need for strengthening surveillance programmes and warning system. Inadequacy of testing laboratories, and access to existing laboratories make the surveillance of epidemics a difficult task. As a part of mitigation, this would require

• Identification of areas endemic to certain epidemics must be routinely updated to access field requirements
• Identification of appropriate locations for testing laboratories
• Ensuring continuous flow of field data from both government establishments and private medical personnel
• Collating and analysing the data at regular intervals to assess epidemiological monitoring requirements.

In addition to the surveillance it is necessary to keep the general population informed about the health situation in the state, which would encourage communities to take necessary promotive and preventive steps in controlling epidemics. As a part of mitigation strategy, therefore, the Public Health Department should develop a system of issuing health bulletins through mass media, particularly television on the lines of weather bulletin.

In order to mitigate the possibilities of the outbreak of epidemics, the public health department should encourage the local authorities and the communities to undertake certain preventive and promotive measures. The mitigation strategy would include

• Piped drinking water supply and water quality monitoring
• Vector Control programmes as a part of overall community sanitation activities
• Promotion of personal and community latrines
• Introduction of sewage and drainage systems
• Enforcement of FDA norms on edibles and production and sale of these
• Solid waste management systems
• Surveillance of water bodies and canal distribution network for control of malaria

• Promoting and strengthening community hospitals with adequate network of para-professionals will improve the capacity of the Public Health Department (PHD) for surveillance and control of epidemics.

• Establishing testing laboratories at appropriate locations in different divisions within the state will reduce the time taken for diagnosis and subsequent warning.

• Establishing procedures and methods of coordination between PHD and local authorities.

Unlike in the case of railways, road accidents are not investigated into. Findings of accident investigations will provide useful guidelines for evolving mitigation measures and developing safety standards appropriate to the ever-changing road traffic scenario.

If the current provision of Motor Vehicle Act and other related legislations and regulations, including regulations on transport of hazardous and toxic materials, are strictly enforced, the incidence of road accidents will reduce drastically. The mitigation strategy therefore assumes that enforcement of such regulations will precede the measures suggested.

• Strengthening the enforcement wing in Transport Commissionarate.

• Creation of adequate highway/traffic aid posts. At every major intersection on the highway, traffic aid posts should be set-up.

• Trauma care centres should be established at every 100 kilometres on the national and state highways.

• Every traffic aid post should have a hotline telephone connection with the nearest trauma care centres.

• Modern technology including speed monitoring equipments and computerisation of movement of vehicles with adequate checkpoints on the national highways should be introduced.

• Equipments for removal of accident vehicles from the highways should be easily accessible to the RTO, and the police.

• Considerable confusion exists because of multiple authorities and agencies involved in the regulation and monitoring of movement of vehicles on all roads. It is necessary to coordinate the roles of all such agencies through a single agency.

• Identify and designate routes for transportation of hazardous chemicals. Such routes should not pass through highly populated areas.

• Parking of vehicles on national highways and even on state highways should be strictly prohibited.

• Excavations on roads must be protected well, particularly in the night, with barricades, fluorescent signs and red lights.

• Special bays for parking of vehicles on trunk routes should be provided at strategic points with provision for food and other facilities.

• Public works department should concentrate on removal of bottlenecks on national and state highways in particular. Bridges should be widened before roads are widened.

• Efforts should be made to provide road dividers on all national and state highways on a priority basis.

• Efforts should be made to light up all national highways carrying excessive vehicle load.

• All unmanned railway crossings should be manned with signal facilities.

• All ghat roads should have adequate embankments on the valley side.

• The speed breakers and tipplers must have standard designs.

• Provision of laybyes for all bus stops must be made mandatory with authority given to RTO to clear them off all encroachments.

• Information sign-boards should be provided giving the location of the nearest village, police station, hospital, ghat traffic position, petrol pump etc. at every traffic aid post.

• Insurance claims should be linked with compliance of all regulations related to vehicles and transport restrictions.

• All two wheeler drivers, including pillion riders must, always wear the right kind of protective head-gear.

• As the inter-state transport of goods has been increasing over the years, there should be a uniform national regulation on permissible loads.

• All vehicles carrying school children must be registered and provided with flashlights signs and designated halts. Regulations for overtaking such vehicles when they are stationary should be introduced.

• Vehicles with break-down on the highway must display a plate on a stand with a danger sign painted thereon in the front and rear. Every goods vehicle must have such plates with the stands and should be inspected either at the octroi points or by the RTOs.

• Simulation aided training should be adopted for drivers carrying hazardous and toxic materials.

• Every vehicle must be provided with hazard lights (blinking lights) which would warn drivers of other vehicles of the stationary vehicle.

• Reflectors and tail lamps should be made compulsory for handcarts, cattle driven carts, tractors, tractor and jeep trolleys, cycles, cycle-rickshaws and such other non-motorised vehicles not falling under Motor Vehicles Act, 1988.

• Simplify the procedure under Section 140 of the Motor Vehicles Act, 1988, for compensation to accident victims.

Fire brigades are essentially under the control of municipal authorities and hence, are discouraged from crossing the municipal limits. Industrial safety departments also have fire fighting equipments for on-site emergencies. It is therefore, seen that rural sector by and large, is totally deprived of any fire fighting assistance.

• Make fire fighting services available to rural areas outside the local municipal limits.

• Assisting municipal authorities not having fire brigade to establish such a service.

• Encourage agricultural marketing committees and cooperatives in rural areas to establish their fire services.

• Evolving methods of coordination between municipal fire services and industrial safety departments.

• Undertake community education and preparedness for fire fighting in areas where fire services will not easily available.

• In industrial towns, fire services should be equipped with protective clothing and fire fighting devices including masks, gloves etc. for dealing with chemicals and toxic materials.

• Special burns wards should be established in every civil hospital and in the hospitals near the industrial estates.

• Equipping fire services with communication facilities like wireless etc. and wherever such facilities exist, these should be upgraded.

• Computerised data management system should be introduced to keep the record of all fires including frequency, extent, fatality, economic losses etc.

• The roles and responsibilities of district administration, police, fire services and medical services should be clearly laid down.

• All industrial concentrations should be encouraged to establish MARG for management of industrial accidents.

• Industries involved in the production or transportation of inflammable, hazardous and toxic materials should have a mandatory responsibility for preparing an off-site plan and communicating the same to district collector. Simulation exercises should be undertaken in the adjoining communities.

• Poison centres should be established in every civil hospital and in the hospitals near the industrial estates with facilities for detoxication.

• All transport of hazardous and toxic materials should be communicated to the RTO.

• All pipelines carrying hazardous and toxic materials should be equipped with devices to check any leakage or metal fatigue.

• Small scale industries releasing toxic waste in water should be encouraged to set up common effluent treatment facility.

• A common format for chemical data sheets should be devised which should be used by DISH to collect information from all industries in the state and the same should be available with both fire brigade and police.

7. IMPLEMENTATION OF THE MITIGATION STRATEGY DOCUMENT

The state Disaster Management Action Plan and the district disaster management action plans outline some of the preparedness and mitigation measures intended to respond to immediate requirements of the situation. However, a long-term planning exercise has to integrate these mitigation strategies with concrete mitigation plans for districts based on a cost-benefit ratios of the technical options. Broadly, such an integration would require addressing various issues to be dealt by the stakeholders. Apart from broad assignment of responsibilities to implementing agencies and departments, it is necessary to ensure adequate authority and resources through allocations and incentives.

1. Policy Issues
• Administrative and legislative measures
• Mitigation regulations
• Incentives and resources for mitigation
• Conditions for relief

2. Administrative Issues
• Institutional and technical capabilities
• Enforcement
• Public information

3. Private Sector Issues
• Financing mitigation investment
• Insurance
• Safety standards

4. Research Issues
• Hazard mapping
• Efficient and effective technical measures
• Cost benefit analysis

5. Partnership Issues
• Community participation
• LSG and NGOs’ role
• Training

Once the responsibilities are assigned, it is essential to spell out (measurable) goals with specific objectives (tasks) along with their linkages and time frame. The estimated cost and manpower requirements for each of the task, can also be worked out through a consultative process. In addition to developing a overall framework for implementation, an annual plan of action giving details of activities to be accomplished must be prepared for an effective monitoring.